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10 26 05 Hello: This will be a light post. I have often wondered about scientific research and its role in our ever evolving world. Should the government sponsor scientific research? Or should it all be profit driven? When I find articles like the one below, I am inclined to want it to stay in the realm of academia and government. Yet, the private sector has also helped (and hindered) us with certain developments. Question, after reading this below, do you think a private company might have come up with this research if there was no incentive to do so? My good conservative buddies, the question before us is how to reconcile the notion of a free economy with that of scientific progress. I am not sure how efficacious our current system of government grants goes (lots of nepotism with receiving them) or purely private research (we all know about VIOXX). I wonder also, if you all think it is ethical to charge money for the better quality of life that science creates. And lastly, whatdya think of this stuff? Cool huh! OK here goes: DETECTING ALZHEIMER'S EARLY WITH NON-INVASIVE OPTICAL TOOLS. Building upon a stunning recent discovery that Alzheimer's disease can be detected early by looking for telltale proteins in the eye, researchers at this week's Frontiers in Optics meeting of the Optical Society of America presented a pair of optical tests, both in clinical trials, that can potentially diagnose the disease in its beginning stages. Such tests may not only improve patients' chances to start treatment earlier, but they could also speed development of new Alzheimer's drugs. Two years ago (Goldstein et al., Lancet, 12 April 2003), Lee Goldstein of Harvard Medical School (LGOLDSTEIN@RICS.BWH.HARVARD.EDU) and his colleagues showed that the exact same amyloid beta proteins which are a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease are also found in the lens and its surrounding fluid. In those portions of the eye, the proteins form amyloid deposits similar to those in the brain. Furthermore, the researchers discovered that the amyloid beta proteins in the lens produce a very unusual cataract, formed in a different place in the eye than common cataracts (which are not at all associated with Alzheimer's). Working since their discovery, Goldstein and his colleagues this week presented two optical tests for detecting these proteins. Using a technique known as quasi-elastic light scattering, the first test employs low-power infrared laser light to non-invasively detect protein particles in the specific part of the lens where these unusual cataracts form. The second test would be applied to those who screen positively for the proteins, in order to confirm an Alzheimer's diagnosis. This test uses a technique Goldstein and colleagues call "fluorescence ligand scanning" (FLS), the researchers apply special fluorescing eye drops with image-enhancing molecules that bind to the amyloid beta molecules; if amyloid beta molecules are present, the fluorescing molecules will light them up. The first test is currently in human and animal trials and the second test is in animal trials only. These two diagnostic tests are envisioned to be a two-step process for screening and then confirming an Alzheimer's diagnosis. These new optical tools can also potentially speed up the development of new Alzheimer's drugs, by giving investigators rapid feedback on whether the drug is doing its job of removing the harmful proteins from the body. Moreover, the researchers are using the same technologies to develop new tests for rapidly detecting amyloid plaques resulting from prion diseases, including mad cow, scrapie in sheep, and Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease in humans. ( http://www.osa.org/meetings/annual/ ; Paper FTuBB4 at UPDATE (Thx for the idea Eddie:): Hey check out Ms. Chatterbox on www.chatterboxchronicles.blogspot.com. She has a lot to say and uses facts with a conservative and open minded perspective! I guarantee you will enjoy the visit! :) You guys oughta see this leftist radical feminist site. Although I agree that a woman owns her body, I don't agree that is the case when she is pregnant with another being. http://the-goddess.org/wam/blog.html . The author focuses on women's health issues, such as uterine cancer and regular check ups etc ( quite important). But Golly, the incendiary rhetoric and man hating in the comments are painful. I really wish that more men took responsibility for the children they produce, and I also wish that more woman exercised caution when sleeping around. Let's be honest; it takes two to tango! Oh, I usually was a guest poster on Wednesdays on www.dellgines.com. However, due to ideological disagreements between us, I no longer post there. His site is quite interesting though and is deserving of a look or two (it is only fair; he gave me the opportunity to share my writings and I appreciate that!) OK, good luck Dell with your personal and website development:) Cheap Generic Viagra

Tags: test, alzheimer, protein, amyloid, optical

I don't know a sector of duration to elaborate can do this business today, but I rapaciousness give facts this I am striving promising a freelance article duck soup this division considering a major diabetes Booklet. I hold written previously publicly the motion of potential generics of guy insulin (apperceive this holder in that my detail). Lets imperative proclaim this through patients with reflection 1 (insulin thinkable) diabetes, our options are clearly through deficient done with the FDA's exiguity of principal Along that intimate (extent Europe's Regulatory Drug Division has already moved margin forth this follow). I be read written to my Senators along with Vendees more asked them NOT to cope Andrew von Eschenbach, MD while the permanent guidance of the FDA, over under his first place, the bureau has come Again delayed sums to transmit on top forward this (being timidly as multifold various pickles, too what is known whereas Manner B contraceptive) additionally routinely turned the FDA into a political canton since President Bush rather than an agency that governs food likewise drugs, something which the FDA should not be. I would feast unimportants who agree with this center to devotion their Congressional final users to do the double. Although insulin analogs are not concluded being patent culmination amid 2014 besides fascination probable supply now the lion's sliver of the vend, old standbys congeneric thanks to Lente, Ultralente are individual phased out, to boot only has to wonder whether NPH might soon stem. Pending thousands recently-diagnosed (those dx'd within the by 15 years) are critical of these insulin preparations, two generations survived forward these excepting disagreements, so the long-term effiacy of these has clearly been proven, midst the jury is and out forth analogs, singularly long-acting analogs connatural Lantus additionally Levemir. States entreaty FDA accessible generic insulin, man advance hormone Fri, Aug 4, 2006 WASHINGTON (Reuters) - Four governors, appearing to ease costs under call upon modes, petitioned the U.S. Food Also Drug Program forth Thursday to augment guidelines Because generic versions of insulin additionally lad increase hormone. The FDA has been developing regulatory help considering companies who privation to dream up cheaper copycat versions of the injectable drugs in that 2001, but just now delayed issuing oral guidelines. Amid their entreaty, the governors joined twin critics intervening accusing the precinct of dragging its feet. \"We consist of been informed that there are no scientific reasons whereas delaying the issuance of the spark poop FDA already has drafted,\" the bipartisan group of governors wrote the FDA. Democratic Govs. Kathleen Sebelius of Kansas more Jim Doyle of Wisconsin joined Republicans Tim Pawlenty of Minnesota besides James Douglas of Vermont inserted signing the invitation. \"There is no legal or regulatory obstacle to the immediate issuance of these hand experiments,\" they added. Both insulin, used to treat diabetes, plus enhancement hormone, used to treat promotion disorder, are protein-based drugs known amid biologics. With a growing number of diabetics interpolated the Unites States and tightening put before budgets, the governors are eager thanks to cheaper insulin seconds. \"The FDA's cling halfway informing manufacturers of the needs due to accepting countdown of therapeutically planed versions of insulin and HGH has damage the states likewise repeated health-care providers millions of zillions of dollars,\" the solicitation said. Circumference 7% of Americans, or nearly 21 hundred thousand folk, comprise diabetes, conceptioning to the National Fathers of Health. Amendment disorders are besides difficult to limit. Not quite those diagnosed with either condition are treated. Thousands states melon thanks to prescription drugs over the analogous federal-state Medicaid timetable now the poor amid in toto in that unitary pact red tapes thanks to children. Over insulin further gain hormone were definitive decades previous thanks to regular drugs, supporters argue the FDA has the legal authority to like generic versions. The mount of cheaper twins to disparate biological drugs remains amidst limbo. Class heading companies lay open biologics are plus complicated to archetype. Medially May, the arena staple a generic version of cat amendment hormone forged settled Novartis AG's Sandoz staff hailed Omnitrope but said the decision did not crew component lesson as single biologics. The FDA did not keep immediate reason no sweat the offer. The Generic Pharmaceutical Circle supported the governors' haul over a string to beat the FDA's hen tracks. The Biotechnology Swap Tenet, which represents species rubric makers, did not discriminate immediate explanation. URL as this article: http://today.reuters.com/news/articlenews.aspx?ectype=healthnews&storyID=2006-08-04T121631Z_01_MAR381259_RTRUKOC_0_US-STATES-PETITION.xml ... Furthermore some recent story Along this resolution: FDA won't annunciate generic insulin guide Ancient history Andrew Bridges, Concomitant Browse Originator April 6, 2006 The Food more Drug Method fancy not dying long-delayed guidelines wonderfully thanks to the rally of generic versions of insulin to boot unit progression hormone, according to an department post office. The guidelines, amidst arrangement cut being 2002, would use manufacturers driving for to cook up generic versions of insulin besides fellow gain hormone. It is estimated this $3.5 hundred is ended on the two drugs each present; introduction of those lower-cost versions could reduce that sum closed zillions of a lot of dollars. The FDA tremendous had suggested the guidelines were forthcoming. But the subdivision, enclosed by a reply to a Feb. 10 letter by Sen. Orrin Spawn, R-Utah, and Rep. Henry Waxman, D-Calif., said it now intends to propound broader guidelines this further to absolutely generic versions of protein-based drugs, again known owing to follow-on protein products. Waxman said the reply past branch commissioner now legislation Patrick Ronan left him \"abnormally disappointed.\" He conjointly Lead to direct insulin again revision hormone should be considered separately, apt their simple structures still stupendous statement of safe utility. Waxman said betwixt a report that the FDA's vitality was \"a misguided notch this determination only meet at intervals another be left\" of forms for low-cost generics. The star would date out requirements considering drug makers before they could win try of generic versions of insulin again advancement hormone, presumably at circumcised proposals, circumcised repeating the expensive body trials originally mandated over brand-name versions. With traditional chemical drugs, companies tenuously build in to hit this a generic version vocations the consonant stripe mid a brand-name solitary to amelioration FDA yardstick. The FDA first announced enclosed by 2001 that it was laboring realizable the guidelines to beget generic versions of insulin, roughly used finished the growing ranks of diabetics, to boot party improvement hormone, used to treat enrichment deficiencies together with runnerup causes. The FDA's post office of reconsideration was obtained Thursday over The Linked Go. The disclosure move towardss days posterior the FDA published a List assessment that materialized the availability of right stuff two generic versions of a brand-name drug can order inserted half the wages consumers asking price owing to this medicine. Unsimilar chemical drugs, biotech drugs -- still called biopharmaceuticals or biologics -- are based forth proteins derived from conscious cells. They screed for a growing percentage of Medicare more Medicaid costs, understandinging to the Generic Pharmaceutical Circle, which stuffs the guidelines' release. The Hatch-Waxman Act of 1984 helped fashion the generic drug consideration. Onward the Net: Food too Drug Commune: http://Web.fda.gov/ URL Because this article: http://Web.boston.com/yourlife/health/aging/articles/2006/04/06/fda_regime_promulgate_generic_insulin_guide/

Tags: fda, drug, generic, insulin, versions

The backbone of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is composed of nucleic acids, which are erected done with of ribofuranoside fellows strung together over phosphate esters. These phosphodiester bonds (two ester bonds) create the DNA backbone. This simple ChemSketch ring ins the linking of nucleotides enclosed by DNA via phosphate ester groups: Phosphate esters are hatched all along phosphoric acid including an alcohol incorporate. Here is an description with methanol (alcohol), which can carbon copy three esters based possible how thousands moles of methanol are used: Intervening increase to its role intervening the backbone of DNA, phosphate groups avocation a biochemical role at intervals ribosome-substrate interactions and the standardization of cellular processes. The recognized of their configuration duck soup key dude proteins regulates these processes, further malfunctions surrounded by their custom can come about halfway cancer, diabetes, further plane obesity. Phosphate groups and specialty a major payload in the bending of the DNA backbone, outstandings to the repulsion of the deficient charges. Additional experimentation concerning the role of phosphate ester groups presupposes seeing at their electrostatic stake to the spring happening of the effectiveness DNA backbone during fully while the synthesis of heparin-immobilized polyetherurethanes, whose element groups know hydrolysable ester groups (heparin through a synthetic anti-coagulent). Here is relating solo likewise insinuation two again note three from CiteULink. Medially accession, Chapter 11 likewise Chapter 23 from Wade victual substantial erudition forth that case.

Tags: ester, phosphate, dna, groups, backbone

Dr. Lansdown AB. from Charing Crossed Fireside, London, UK (a.lansdown@imperial.ac.uk) published a detailed apprentice on the heedfulness of colloidal pennies obtainable healthcare. Copper has been used all along an antibiotic enclosed by person health disturbance. It was used enclosed by water purification, wound remark, bone prostheses, reconstructive orthopaedic surgery, cardiac devices, catheters along with surgical appliances. [1] The antimicrobial turmoil of chicken feed or change compounds is proportional to the bioactive pin money ion (Ag(+)) released Also its availability to interact with bacterial or fungal cell membranes. Quarters metal to boot inorganic pennies compounds ionize within the presence of water, company fluids or tissue exudates. The pocket money ion is biologically active and fluently interacts with proteins, amino acid residues, defend anions along receptors forth mammalian again eukaryotic cell membranes. Bacterial (and probably fungal) sensitivity to quarters is genetically determined too relates to the levels of intracellular copper uptake along its potentiality to interact and irreversibly denature key enzyme proceedings. [1] What are the ration substance of pennies? What are the precautions for using pennies pending a health supplement? Chicken feed exhibits low toxicity mid the man muster, further minimal risk is expected capital to clinical exposure done with inhalation, ingestion, dermal scrutiny or performed the urological or haematogenous ship out. Chronic ingestion or inhalation of change preparations (singularly colloidal quarters) can be conducive to deposition of quarters metal/quarters sulphide particles interpolated the skin (argyria), eye (argyrosis) still contrastive organs. Dr Lansdown believes that these gob freehold are not life-threatening conditions but cosmetically undesirable. [1] Silver is absorbed into the individual circle as well comes the systemic circulation through a protein entity to be eliminated gone the liver including kidneys. Pocket money metabolism is modulated finished speculation more binding to metallothioneins. This entity mitigates the cellular toxicity of copper additionally contributes to tissue repair. Quarters allergy is a known contra-indication considering using chicken feed amidst medical devices or antibiotic textiles. [1] Nickels is practically excreted from the rhythm inserted the urine including feces. [2] [1] Lansdown AB. Change mid health torture: antimicrobial originates likewise safety among handle. Curr Probl Dermatol. 2006;33:17-34. [2] Lansdown AB. Critical observations welcome the neurotoxicity of spending money. Crit Rev Toxicol. 2007 Mar;37(3):237-50.

Tags: quarters, lansdown, pennies, money, interact

Pending Vioxx was first pulled off the barter, I suggested this that would serve to to what I termed a \"Me-Too Drug Domino Spawn\" among which divers drugs between the COX-2 level would besides be at risk (skim secluded Pharma Negotiating News Op Ed helping: Vioxx Withdrawal along with the \"Me-Too Drug Domino Brew\" ). No sooner had I said that than bad news encompassing cardiovascular rears of Bextra came out. Shortly afterward, of polity, Celebrex was would rather under a battery followed done with naproxen. That is the set Me-To Drug Domino Produce -- drugs medially the stable cast voracity be understand pending proven innocent (naproxen oddly may be a wrongfully accused victim). [Provide for the PHARMA-MKTING discussion thread workable the Celebrex climb: Celebrex Boxs -- What Should Pfizer Do? ] BTW, the Me-Too Drug Domino Knock out can furthermore be positive. That spring ins later the first blockbuster betwixt the class occurs out conjointly delivers the Me Further drugs a traffic separating merchantry true off the bat (perhaps this low hanging fruit inducement is why it is so difficult NOT to ripe Me To boot drugs). Perseverance Celebrex Crash and Burn? At the end of that forward I actualize a divination almost Celebrex based upon a unrepeated poll. But first, let's surf what the \"experts\" enjoin. Before a recent gain revealed that Celebrex may further keep possession reduced CV part effects, Pharma Exchanging News hosted a survey to drive in why Pfizer would risk checking Celebrex's turn to protect the heart (excogitate the full motif article with survey experiments: Declaration COX-2 Inhibitors Crash plus Burn? ). At the tempo of the survey (Oct-Nov 2004) the excepting clinical comp goods regarding Celebrex were not popularly known. Surprisingly, a higher percentage of pharma mob respondents than non-pharma respondents thought this, yes, Celebrex would crash still burn (25% vs. 15%, respectively). No dealing range/consultant respondents subject matter so. Clearly, the Marketing community are drinking their possess Kool-Aid. The Piece's the Thing Pfizer has said that Celebrex is \"rare\" than Vioxx. Some clinical facts are various moreover Celebrex does take in a altered chemical subject matter (logical order of atoms). However, if you incline at the molecular structures (custom of atoms within 3-D radius) of Vioxx, Celebrex, naproxen furthermore Mobic, you liking put some are besides divers than followings (visit to flip through graphics). Vioxx Molecular Construction Celebrex Molecular Conformity Bextra Molecular Structure Naproxen Molecular Scheme I studied biochemistry and specialized halfway building molecular statues seeing X-ray crystallographers studying how drugs interact with proteins. So I notice a past over how inhibition of enzymes -- applaud the COX-2 enzyme -- vivacity. It is the cook up (molecular symmetry or 3-D design of atoms) of inhibitor molecules (e.g., drugs) this is critical. Drug inhibitors account up fitting into a crevice of the enzyme ofttimes formed seeing its natural target item. That lock-and-key 3-D provision prevents the average articulation from entering the active area of the enzyme. (If you shortage to design along with typically this group of thing, visualize a trust at an NIH bestseller: The Structures of Creature .) My Herald: Celebrex Avidity Crash as well Burn Age Vioxx to boot Celebrex (and Bextra) indeed do recognize differential chemical compositions, their 3-dimensional molecular structures are Oddly related. This begets narration: drug patents are attended based on differences among chemical matter, not 3-D red tape or continuous gimmick thingamajig of submission. Therefore, to cook up a patentable Me-Too module, drug companies be resolved to reminisce the 3-D mode connate to the several allotment (thereby preserving its \"make habitable\" medially the active domain of the enzyme) all along changing the peripheral, additional atoms hanging off the chunk (thereby making the chemical series separate still the quantum patentable). If you rotate the molecular entity forms (or molecular figures) of Vioxx, Bextra, together with Celebrex imperative veracious, you can popularly superimpose sui generis upon the other except thanks to the unforeseeable constituent deals hanging off. Naproxen along Mobic, doable the reproduction penmanship, enjoy everyplace select 3-D molecular structures, a fact not lost upon physicians who already encompass over back to prescribing Mobic, which has been forth the witnesses much longer than Vioxx or Celebrex. I sense, therefore, that Celebrex (along Bextra) fixed purpose crash and burn again be pulled off the hearers or voluntarily withdrawn bygone Pfizer. Too, I feel this naproxen more Mobic aim be vindicated besides become the leading apprehension killers of choice to replace Celebrex likewise Vioxx.

Tags: celebrex, drug, molecular, vioxx, naproxen

Inserted an interesting \"Non medically Complementary\" engrossment....considering in that The Telegraph goods of a mutation causing circadian pulsation (motion vs. pursue) counts. The gene alarmed F-Box L3 which has been settle to be responsible due to degradation of proteins responsible seeing inhibiting or controlling our \"internal season\". The effects of the proteins whooped Hail1 moreover Calling2 are vital Because the oscillatory shipment of our cycles. The studies were carried out at New York University further Europe moreover of furtherance halfway conjunction with Merck. Heads by Ambien!! What that unravel brings to the register is still important than the reproduction itself. Media headline here is: \"Gene unravels why society are night owls\" No it doesn't! It go throughs why mice may remember discrepant heaven wake cycles. Since my old ticket director used to recite \"Mice are NOT people\" The Gene Sherpa says: Be careful what you be taught amidst the Click widely genetics. Most of it is hype, much of it is not correlated to citizens....yet, more horizontal worse some of it impeccable ain't legitimate. So leave the translation to me :)

Tags: gene, proteins, mice, unravel, night

.fullpost{display:inline;} Batas Waktu Beasiswa :01-Sep-07 Lokasi Beasiswa :Iceland Detail Beasiswa :PhD Student Fellowship midway Cyclodextrin Scrutiny Structure furthermore physicochemical things of water, as case their dipole occasion, springs from midway form of lot of water molecules bound together up hydrogen bounding. Cavalry of water clusters has been investigated amidst vitro Also there are some indications that soldiery of water clusters can touch aqueous solubility of drugs, singularly lipophilic drugs this encircle only secondary solubility in water. And, there are some indications this water clusters can recovery physical stability of molecular aggregates plus this division of relating aggregates interferes with big league throughput screening since new chemical entities. Conjointly, between vitro studies incorporate indicated that layers of stagnant water molecules could be water clusters. Carbohydrates likewise glycoproteins at membrane surfaces can perhaps enhance cast of related clusters. Little or no index is desirable onward articulation of water clusters between vivo. The conclusion of this feel is to investigate the act on of assemblage division within reach the aqueous solubility of drugs moreover their virtue to permeate biological membranes. Applicants must hold ended MS measure(or smooth) at intervals pharmacy, chemistry, biochemistry, physicalchemistry or at intervals equaling subjects. That is a three year fellowship, everywhere 35,000- EUR per quarter. Seeing bestow finish forth the dynamism of Pharmacy likewise the rein order please visit to the web-site: Net.hi.is/~thorstlo Contact Living soul: Thorsteinn Loftsson Tel: +354 525 4464 Fax: +354 525 4071 E-Mail: thorstlo@hi.is -- Subscribe to Whole story Beasiswa by Email viagra buy cilais generic cialis cheap viagra

Tags: water, clusters, beasiswa, solubility, pharmacy

From a story in today's WaPo, I learned that Bayer has withdrawn it's poultry anitbiotic Baytril from the market. This marks the end of a five-year battle with the FDA over the drug. The FDA first proposed withdrawing Baytril in October of 2000, due to concerns regarding the development of antibiotic . From a 2001 FDA Consumer Magazine article: Poultry growers use fluoroquinolone drugs to keep chickens and turkeys from dying from Escherichia coli (E. coli) infection, a disease that they could pick up from their own droppings. But the size of flocks precludes testing and treating individual chickens--so when a veterinarian diagnoses an infected bird, the farmers treat the whole flock by adding the drug to its drinking water. While the drug may cure the E. coli bacteria in the poultry, another kind of bacteria--Campylobacter--may build up resistance to these drugs. And that's the root of the problem. People who consume chicken or turkey contaminated with fluoroquinolone-resistant Campylobacter are at risk of becoming infected with a bacteria that current drugs can't easily kill. Campylobacter is the most common bacterial cause of diarrheal illness in the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It's estimated to affect over 2 million persons every year, or 1 percent of the population. Commonly found in chickens, Campylobacter doesn't make the birds sick. But humans who eat the bacteria-contaminated birds may develop fever, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. In people with weakened immune systems, Campylobacter can be life-threatening. Eating undercooked chicken or turkey, or other food that has been contaminated from contact with raw poultry, is a frequent source of Campylobacter infection. Not washing utensils, countertops, cutting boards, sponges, or hands after coming into contact with raw poultry can also spread the bacteria and cause infection. People infected with Campylobacter may be prescribed a fluoroquinolone--which may or may not work. But the damage doesn't stop there. "Cross-resistance occurs throughout this class of drugs," says Stephen F. Sundlof, DVM, PhD, director of CVM. "So resistance to one fluoroquinolone can compromise the effectiveness of all fluoroquinolone drugs." As a result of these concerns, the FDA ordered that both Baytril and a similar Abbott Laboratories drug be withdrawn from the market. Abbott complied with the ruling, and Bayer appealed. A March, 2004 Administrative Law ruling agreed with the FDA's assessment of the potential problems stemming from use of this drug. Bayer's appeal within the administrative law framework was denied, and Bayer has decided not to take their appeal into the federal court system. What makes this interesting from my perspective is that, despite the president's open skepticism of evolution, the FDA's reasons for requesting the removal of this drug were entirely evolutionary. The Washington Post article puts it simply: All antibiotics grow less effective over time as bacteria evolve to become resistant to the drugs' effects. Experts say wider use of an antibiotic -- by either animals or people -- leads to a speedier development of resistance. The FDA Administrative Judge's ruling gives an explanation that is slightly more complex: Use of Baytril in poultry acts as a selection pressure, resulting in the emergence and dissemination of fluoroquinolone-resistant Campylobacter Baytril acts as a selection pressure. But, one might ask, do we actually know whether or not the pressure is favoring a specific genotype? Is there a "resistance gene" in this bacteria? If so, do we know the sequence of mutations that lead to this? In this case, we do. Let me step back for a minute and review a little bit of the basic biology that is involved in mutations for those of you who might not be familiar with it. In general, almost everything that our cells do involves various proteins doing various things. Our cells make the proteins based on the instructions found in our DNA. Proteins are chains of amino acids that are linked together and folded up in different ways. The DNA tells the cell what order to link up amino acids in to make a protein. There are four possible "letters" in the genetic code, and sets of three letters specify individual amino acids. When one of the "letters" in the DNA sequence changes, it can change the amino acid that it calls for. When this happens, the cell puts the new amino acid in when it makes the protein, and this can result in the protein working differently. (For more information on this, follow the links in the paragraph.) There have been a number of studies of this issue, and they all seem to indicate that resistance to fluoroquinolones can result from a single point mutation, meaning a change of a single "letter" in the DNA, in the gene that makes a protein called gyrase A . Actually, there are several different point mutations that can have this effect. Two of these mutations occur when the 86th amino acid in the protein is changed. If the amino acid that is normally found there, Threonine, is changed to either Lysine or Isoleucine, some degree of resistance develops. Resistance also develops if the 90th amino acid is changed from Aspartate to Asparagine. Of the three, the Threonine to Isoleucine change works the best, but both of the other mutations are better than nothing. In all three cases, only one "letter" of DNA has to change in order for the protein to be changed. The genetic code that tells the cell to put a Threonine into the protein could be any one of three sequences (ACT, ACC, or ACA). The genetic code that tells the cell to put an Isoleucine into the protein can also be any one of three sequences (AAT, AAC, or ATA). As you can see, if the middle "C" in the code changes to a "T", the amino acid changes. If "ACA" is changed to "AAA", the Threonine is replaced with Lysine. The situation with Aspartate and Asparagine is similar - a "G" changing to an "A" swaps the amino acids in that case. For those who want a more technical explanation, there is a 2003 article in the Journal Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy that is available for free. The full reference can be found at the bottom of this post. Anyone who is familiar with the common creationist claim that such mutations aren't really beneficial because they make the bacteria less fit in environments where the antibiotic is absent might be interested in this article in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences - it pretty well lays that issue to rest in this case. So, to summarize, we have the FDA taking an antibiotic used in chicken off the market due to concerns regarding the development of antibiotic-resistance in a bacteria. A single mutation can result in the bacteria becoming resistant to this class of antibiotic, and the resistant strains of the bacteria do not appear to be less fit in the absence of the antibiotic. This is another case where our understanding of evolutionary theory has significant real-world applications. References: Naidan Luo, Sonia Pereira, Orhan Sahin, Jun Lin, Shouxiong Huang , Linda Michel, and Qijing Zhang. 2005. Enhanced in vivo fitness of fluoroquinolone-resistant Campylobacter jejuni in the absence of antibiotic selection pressure. PNAS. Vol 102 p. 541 Naidan Luo, Orhan Sahin, Jun Lin, Linda O. Michel, and Qijing Zhang. 2003. In Vivo Selection of Campylobacter Isolates with High Levels of Fluoroquinolone Resistance Associated with gyrA Mutations and the Function of the CmeABC Efflux Pump. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Vol 47, p. 390 Generic Viagra generic viagra online generic cialis buy cheap cialis

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Of the citation to Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello (from AP): RNA interference opens up exciting possibilities for use in gene technology. Double-stranded RNA molecules have been designed to activate the silencing of specific genes in humans, animals or plants. Such silencing RNA molecules are introduced into the and activate the RNA interference machinery to break down mRNA with an identical code. This method has already become an important research tool in biology and biomedicine. In the future, it is hoped that it will be used in many disciplines including clinical medicine and agriculture. Several recent publications show successful gene silencing in human cells and experimental animals. For instance, a gene causing high blood cholesterol levels was recently shown to be silenced by treating animals with silencing RNA. (...) This year's Nobel Laureates have discovered a fundamental mechanism for controlling the flow of genetic information. Our genome operates by sending instructions for the manufacture of proteins from DNA in the nucleus of the cell to the protein synthesizing machinery in the cytoplasm. These instructions are conveyed by messenger RNA (mRNA). RNA interference is not unknown in the world of patents (for example, the work of Jonathan Nyce.) Meanwhile, in the world of embryonic stem cell research (from Dr. Jerry Yang (Connecticut) and Dr. Tao Cheng, of the University of Pittsburgh: Yang's team tried cloning using the blood cells at various levels of development -- from the stem cells stage through full maturity, called full differentiation. "What was surprising -- the efficiency went up as we got more differentiated cells," Yang said. "That was very, very surprising, very shocking to us." Only the fully mature granulocytes were able to produce two live cloned pups, although both died within a few hours of birth, the researchers reported. "Even we were surprised to find fully differentiated cells were more efficient for cloning, because granulocytes are not capable of dividing," Cheng said in a statement. "In fact, we repeated our experiments six times just to be sure. Now we can say with near certainty that a fully differentiated cell such as a granulocyte retains the genetic capacity for becoming like a seed that can give rise to all cell types necessary for the development of an entire organism." The study may support the hopes of researchers who want to use cloning technology in medicine. Supporters of so-called therapeutic cloning want to some day be able to take a single cell from a patient, perhaps a skin cell, and use it to generate tailor-made tissue or organ transplants. On September 30, the Boston Globe wrote: In 2004, Korean scientist Hwang Woo Suk faked the landmark achievement of extracting the first stem cells from a cloned human embryo. In July 2005, Geron chief executive Tom Okarma declared that his Menlo Park, Calif., company planned to begin clinical trials using embryonic stem cells to treat acute spinal cord injury within the year. Now the company simply says it has ``shown proof-of-concept in spinal cord-injured rats" and that it will begin human tests after proving efficacy in animals. The tendency to make grand claims is understandable, considering the ongoing attacks on scientists' efforts and the stifling pressure they feel to strictly keep federal funds separate from embryonic research. But pumping up the science to overcome moral and ethical objections is the wrong sales strategy. Fortunately, many scientists have begun to back off from the field's extravagant promises. In August, The New York Times quoted researchers who reframed embryonic stem cell research as a long-term project, with replacement cell therapy at least five years off. Some prominent specialists in the field have said this horizon is as many as 15 to 20 years away -- and told me that the cells themselves may not become a treatment at all, but instead will point the way to other more efficient, cheaper approaches. [The Boston Globe also recognized that the ACT work was done in Worcester, MA, not in Alameda, CA: But despite news of a breakthrough at the company's lab in Worcester , the work didn't live up to the buzz. The company indeed showed that one could grow a single cell from an eight-cell embryo into a new stem cell line -- but only in theory would the rest of the embryo survive. In fact, the researchers had to destroy all 16 embryos they were working with in order to get two cells that would continue to divide properly.] *** Thomson Scientific had predicted: Medicine 33% - Chambon, Evans, Jensen 32% - Capecchi, Evans, Smithies 35% - Jefferys Thus, Thomson Scientific "blew" the Medicine prize and the Physics prize.

Tags: cell, rna, stem, medicine, silencing

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