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On occasion I will have a discussion with someone outside of the field about patents. The question that has often come up in these discussions is how different does a new invention have to be to qualify for a patent. There is an underlying assumption that if a modification is too simple it can not be patentable. I, of course, explain about the "obvious to one of ordinary skill in the art" standard, used in the U.S. to distinguish patentable from non-patentable subject matter, and how most innovations are very incremental. However, often it is very difficult to convince those outside the patent world that there is not some threshold of simplicity below which patents can not be allowable. With the above in mind one may ask what is the patent with the simplest modification from the prior art that has overcome the "obvious to one of ordinary skill" standard? I would submit US Patent 6645402 as a possible candidate for this honor. http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6645402.html Claim 1 reads 1. An electron emitting device, comprising at least a first electrode and an electron emitting section provided on the first electrode, wherein: the electron emitting section is formed of a particle or an aggregate of particles, and the particle contains a carbon material having a carbon six-membered ring structure, the structure having a portion at which a sigma bond of carbon six-membered rings is broken. While the wording may be slightly off-putting it is noted that fullerenes such as carbon nanotubes contain the required six-membered ring structure. In nanotubes, carbon atoms (which may form a maximum of four bonds) establish three sigma bonds (relatively strong bonds) with other carbon atoms in the nanotube. Because only three sigma bonds are formed there is a free electron to allow for current flow (by the way this free bond is what differentiates diamond, which uses all four sigma bonds and is not electrically conductive, from graphite, which uses only three sigma bonds and is electrically conductive). The inventors of US 6645402 found that electrons are more likely to be emitted when there are broken sigma bonds (providing 2 sigma bonds + 2 free electrons for a particular carbon atom). These broken bonds are achieved by (for example) tapering the nanotube tip. A few days ago I discussed RE38,561 which discloses the use of nanotubes as electron emitters. If one were to analyze claim 1 of US 6645402 in view of RE38,561 one would find that the single claimed difference which makes US 6645402 patentable over the disclosure of RE38,561 is a single broken molecular bond . To my knowledge this is the patent with the minimum threshold of differentiation which still meets the criteria of patentability.

Tags: bond, patent, electron, carbon, sigma

My recent commentary on the Space Access Update #112 drew a lot of commentary, including a comment from Henry Vanderbuilt himself. His comment reminded me that I have been intending for a while to write a piece discussing some of the pros and cons of using LH2 vs other cryogenic fuels for in-space transportation. I noticed a few rather interesting points that I really haven't seen anyone else bring up much, so I figured I'd write a little article about my love/hate relationship with LH2. The Allure of Hydrogen Liquid Oxygen and Liquid Hydrogen, usually burned in about 6:1 ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is considered to be the ultimate in rocket performance. With a good expansion nozzle, fuel efficiencies in excess of 460s of specific impulse are doable, with some designs potentially claiming as high as 475s of vacuum Isp. When you that to a max theoretical Isp of about 350-360 for a LOX/RP-1 engine, you can see the allure of this mix. NASA in particular has been very fond of this mixture. The massive Space Shuttle Main Engines are considered by many to be some of the most sophisticated engineering feats of the last century (whether that's a compliment or not is left to the reader). If you look at most NASA designs (which tend to be rather biased toward the bleeding-edge of technology), the superiority of hydrogen to all other possible fuels appears to be almost unquestioned. Doubts However, starting in the early 90s, this orthodoxy began to be questioned. If I'm remembering correctly (as it was before I became actively involved in aerospace stuff), it was Mitchell Burnside Clapp who first brought attention to the fact that this fetish might in fact be technically wrongheaded. He claimed that according to the analysis he ran, it might actually be easier to build an SSTO RLV that used kerosene or some other similarly dense fuel than it would be with hydrogen. Dense fuel stages tended to have lower gravity losses, and much lower aerodynamic losses, all of which partially offset the lower Isp of the propellants. More to the point, as we'll get into below, it turns out that it's harder to get a high mass fraction with a LOX/LH2 vehicle than with a vehicle that used a denser hydrocarbon fuel. [Ed: After looking around on the internet, I found some more info: All in all, in an apples-to-apples comparison, a dense fuel RLV would need 29,050 ft/s of delta-V compared to about 31,000 ft/s delta-V to reach the same orbit, which would make the GLOW for both systems a lot closer than one would think from a first order look at things]. Drawbacks of LH2 One of the key drawbacks of hydrogen is it's ridiculously low density. Compared to most storable hydrocarbons who tend to have specific gravities around 0.7-0.8, hydrogen's specific gravity is a measly 0.07! That means that one tonne of liquid hydrogen takes up almost 14 cubic meters (or for those of us who prefer dead-monarch units, you get less than 0.5lb of the stuff per gallon). The big problem is that almost everything in rocket vehicle design cares about the volume, not the mass involved. Tanks mass scales almost linearly with volume. Pumps pump volume, not mass. Feedlines have to be sized for the volumetric flow rate of the fluid. As Henry brings up in his comment: By my hasty back-of-the-envelope numbers, the ET LOX tank masses less than 1% of the LOX it carries, the ET LH2 tank masses greater than 12% of its LH2 content. Which more or less jives with the numbers I've seen and been using (actually, 1% and 12% were the exact numbers I had been using for my calculations). Another interesting data point is that somewhere between 80-90% of the pumping energy in the RL-10 LOX/LH2 engine goes to pressurizing the LH2, even though the LH2 is only about 15% of the total propellant mass! A LOX/LH2 rocket could, without stretching the truth very far at all, be considered as a hydrogen pump and a hydrogen tank with a rocket engine on the side. Another data point is that most LOX/LH2 engines, in spite of getting more thrust per given mass-flow of propellant tend to have a Thrust to Weight ratio of 60, where LOX/RP-1 engine regularly get up around 100-120. There's another annoying problem with LH2--the stuff is so darn cold. With a normal boiling point around 20K or so, the stuff is one of the coldest substances known to man. Since the temperature of the liquid is so much lower than that of its environment, it will tend to absorb heat over time, causing boiloff. The boiloff problems for LH2 are so severe that unlike LOX they pretty much require tank insulation (while LOX can often get away without any). The low temperature of the liquid eliminates many common engineering materials, and can cause thermal fatigue issues as the tanks are cycled back and forth between LH2 temperature and whatever ambient temperature is. Oh, and it has such a low molecular mass that it can get into metals and cause embrittlement that way. Oh, and it makes sealing tougher. Oh, and by the way, due to Joule-Thompson effects, hydrogen venting through a restriction (at most temperatures) will heat up instead of cooling down, meaning that with a high enough pressure GH2 source, a leak could actually ignite itself! Oh, and it burns with a nearly invisible flame that is several thousand K... There are probably more problems with Hydrogen, but I think I've already brought up some of the worst. So What are the Alternatives? Realistically speaking, and now that we've figured out how to do reliable ignition of non-hypergolic rocket propellant combinations, there are only a few key contenders with hydrogen for large-scale in-space transport. Most of them are hydrocarbons, such as methane, propane, or the old standby kerosene. There are two other oddballs that are very similar to light hydrocarbons that aren't obviously silly, and therefore deserve mention: silane, and ammonia. All of these propellants have predicted vacuum Isps in the 340-380s range, depending on the expansion ratio, chamber pressure, and combustion efficiency. All of them have bulk propellant densities much better than LOX/LH2. Ranging from a bulk density of about 1.03 for LOK/RP-1, down to 0.83 or so for LOX/Methane, as compared to 0.33 or so for LOX/LH2. That means you can get somewhere near 2.5-3x as much propellant into the same volume when compared to LH2. This is important for two things: drylaunch, and tank mass. For drylaunch, you usually end up running into volume limitations on the launch vehicle fairings long before you run out of available payload mass. For example, the Atlas V, 4.5m PLF has about 180 cubic meters of space in its cylindrical section. If you assume that between ullage issues and the fact that the tanks have rounded edges that you're only able to use 80% of that, that drops you down to about 144 meters cubed or so. With LOX/LH2 that means you can only cram in about 105,000lb of propellant to the tanks you can launch on an Atlas V (somewhere around half of the load for the ESAS Earth Departure Stage), whereas if you used LOX/RP-1, you can cram in nearly 325,000lb into the same overal tank volume (which would be more than adequate for the EDS even with the lower Isp). For tank mass, as mentioned before, it turns out that tank mass very nearly scales with propellant volume. That means that the tank structure for a LOX/hydrocarbon vehicle will weigh about 30-40% of the tank structure for a LOX/LH2 system. Another important thing is boiloff. Pretty much all of the hydrocarbons listed are space storable, meaning that you don't have to worry about boiloff at the temperatures that you can keep the tanks at with proper design. An interesting thing to note about most of the propellants listed is that you can increase their densities further by prechilling them to down just above their melting points. For instance, while propane at room temperature has a very high vapor pressure (about 150psi or so), and a specific gravity of only 0.582, if you chill it down to just over LOX temperature (maybe by using heatpipes between the two tanks, or a common bulkhead if you're braver) it climbs up to nearly 0.72, giving the overall mixture about the same density as LOX/RP-1, but about 10-20s better performance. [Ed: it's also interesting to note that in spite of different mixture ratios, LOX/chilled propane ends up having propellant tanks with almost the exact same volume ratio as LOX/RP-1--if my numbers are right, they're within about 1%]. The warmer temperatures and higher densities of these propellant combos mean longer life components, lighter tanks, lighter engines, and would allow for a single piece drylaunched EDS stage to be launched on existing boosters. Not to mention cheaper to design, easier to handle, etc. Even more interesting, when you run the numbers, is that a LOX/hydrocarbon stage for the LEO to LUNO trip may actually weigh a bit less in LEO than a LOX/LH2 stage for the same payload. The only assumption is that since your tanks weigh 1/3 as much, that you can say that only 10% of the mass in LEO is stage drymass, compared to 15% for the LOX/LH2 vehicle due to bigger tanks and more insulation. Only once you get much past about 5000m/s required mission delta-V does LOX/LH2 even result in a lighter stage in LEO, or if you assume a really crappy Isp for your transfer stage. [Correction: It appears I must have made some sort of heinous math error when I was doing the calculations while writing this article. Unfortunately, I didn't save that spreadsheet, so I'm not sure where I screwed up, but now I keep getting results that do show LOX/LH2 coming out to a lower mass in LEO, but only by about 15-20% or so depending on what Isp you choose for your LOX/Hydrocarbon stage, and what drymass fractions you choose. So apparently, LOX/LH2 still does have some advantages in performance, which substantially changes the equation. Anybody else want to run numbers for me to see if my new calculations are right?] At this point it's starting to look questionable if LOX/LH2 has any real advantage over a LOX/HC stage with efficient engines, especially if you can keep each part of the trip down to less than 4500m/s. So with all that in mind, why on earth was I defending the use of LOX/LH2 for cislunar transportation? LH2: What's there to Love? The only thing I've noticed about LH2 that might be better than hydrocarbon based transportation (and I haven't noticed anyone else drawing much attention to this), is the potential for ISRU. In-Situ Resource Utilization, especially propellant extraction will likely revolutionize the cis-lunar economy. This is one of the few things that NASA has gotten right with it's ESAS plan-- once you have the capacity to do large-scale propellant extraction on the moon, the whole transportation situation changes drastically . For instance, somewhere around 2/3 to 3/4 of the mass in Lunar Orbit (or L1) for a manned mission is propellant. Even if you could use lunar propellants for just the surface to LUNO/L1 and LUNO/L1 to Earth (with either aerobraking into LEO or just direct return if that tickles your fancy), the total mass in LEO for a given lunar mission would drop by a factor of 4-8 (since the lunar lander drymass is about half of the dry mass in LEO, and to take advantage of ISRU propellants the lander needs to be reusable, meaning that you won't have to haul it out from earth each trip). There's one big problem. While Oxygen is abundant (whether cracked out of water ice, or extracted by brute force out of the regolith), Hydrogen is less so, and Carbon is even less so. Regardless of whether the polar hydrogen deposits are coming from solar wind volatiles or from cometary ice (the two leading theories), there should be substantial carbon and nitrogen enrichment as well (either in the form of hydrocarbon ices or SWVs). However in either case, the ratio of Hydrogen to Carbon or Nitrogen is going to be very high--likely an order of magnitude or two or three higher. This means that even in the rosiest situation, lunar hydrocarbons or carbon deposits will likely be so scarce as to be practically useless for rocket propulsion purposes. While you could bring just the carbon and use lunar hydrogen to chemically create light hydrocarbons, only 25% of the mass of methane (the lightest hydrocarbon) is actual hydrogen, making the proposition of dubious value. Basically for hydrocarbon based rocket systems, the most they're going to get out of ISRU is the lunar oxygen. And that is the second problem. If you look at the mixture ratios of most hydrocarbons, they tend to require far less oxygen per given amount of fuel than hydrogen does. For LOX/LH2, the ratio is usually 6:1, whereas for LOX/Methane it is only 3.4:1, 3.1:1 for LOX/propane, and only 2.7:1 for LOX/RP-1. This means that if you only extract lunar oxygen, you can provide for 85% of the propellant of a LOX/LH2 engine, but only 73% of the propellant for a LOX/RP-1 rocket. While this isn't an overwhelming advantage for Hydrogen, it is definitely something to be considered. Ramifications? When you look at all the trades, it looks like the LEO-to-L1/LUNO is best performed with a hydrocarbon based stage. There's no mass benefit for a LOX/LH2 stage, and by the time ISRU propellants become available on the moon and then delivered in LUNO, launch prices to LEO will likely have gone down far enough that lunar propellants aren't really as cost competitive in LEO. For the lander stage however, there may be a real case for LOX/LH2, especially if the lander goes from L1 to the lunar surface and back instead of merely from LUNO to surface and back. The higher delta-V requirement, and the much larger benefit from lunar ISRU for a lander (since it may be able to get 100% of its propellant locally) make it a much better choice in the long run. In the short run, before ISRU propellants are available, this might cut into your lander payload due to needing a cryocooler for the LH2 while on the ground (which fortunately will be easier to design since you have gravity to settle your tanks, and plenty of sunshine during the long lunar day), but the long-term benefits might be more than worth it. Ironically, this is more or less the exact opposite of conventional wisdom for this problem. [Ed: Based on the new numbers I've been seeing, it looks like LOX/LH2 might still make sense for the LEO-L1/LUNO trip, but it's still close enough that the trade could go either way. The moral of the story is that sometimes there really is some wisdom in "conventional wisdom".] Thoughts, comments, flames?

Tags: lox, lh, propellant, tank, hydrogen

http://www.freepatentsonline.com/7045811.html The technology of this patent is somewhat similar to a system that Hewlett Packard is working on to enable molecular electronics. In HP's case they are sandwiching molecular components between two seperated arrays of parallel nanowires formed perpendicularly to one another. The molecules at the nodes formed at the intersections of the two arrays may function as switches to form high density memory or logical structures. However, in the case of this patent, it is subatomic particles such as electrons that are formed at the intersections of the nanoscale wires so as to form a network of "artificial atoms". Claim 1 reads: 1. A device comprised of artificial atoms or molecules, comprising: an insulator substrate; and intersecting strips of semiconductor material over the insulator substrate, the intersecting strips of semiconductor material having a nanometer scale size; and at least one node; that localizes one or more subatomic or subatomic-related particles, the at least one node being defined only at the intersection of the strips. "Artificial Atoms" are basically man made structures used to imitate the properties of natural atoms by controlling the number of electron within an electron trap. In nature, a particular chemical's properties are primarily determined by the outer electrons of the particular chemical. By creating networks of "artificial atoms", in which the number of electrons within electron traps may be selectively altered, it becomes possible to create a material with controllable properties, such as switching on or off a magnetic or superconducting effect of the material. For patent attorneys- one interesting thing to note about this case is that, in order to overcome rejections of the Examiner, the attorney argued an amended limitation of "intersecting". Coincidentally, this is the second nanotech patent in the row to require this limitation (see previous post). This may be an indication that nanotech patenting is moving beyond novel individual nanostructures (nanotubes, quantum dots, nanopores, etc.) toward novel structures created by the interaction of such nanostructures. Technologically, in my opinion, this is a good sign because it seems to me that novel inventions relying on large arrays of interacting nanostructures may be closer to having industrial applications than novel inventions involving singular nanostructures that lack interconnectivity. Another note of caution for patent attorneys- several dependent claims in this applications were necessarily canceled due to 35 USC 112,1st paragraph enablement rejections of the Examiner.

Tags: patent, atom, electron, artificial, nanostructures

http://www.freepatentsonline.com/7048999.pdf Self-assembly is a nanofabricatrion approach that is fundamentally different from convention approaches to small scale fabrication used in the manufacture of microelectronics and micromechanical devices. Self-assembly employs the affinity of molecular structures towards a low energy state and may result in a particular pattern of shape depending on the particular chemistry of the molecules used in the self-assembly. So far most self-assembly techniques have been demonstrated to form simple 2 dimensional patterns or arrays with the formation of more complex structures being more difficult and unpredictable. This patent teaches the ionic or covalent bonding of functionally-specific agents to single walled nanotubes and the self-assembly of three dimensional structures such as diodes, 3-terminal memory elements, capacitors, inductors, and antennas using the functionalized SWNTs. Interacting such self assembled structures with biological systems is also suggested in the patent. Claim 1 reads: 1. A three-dimensional structure that self-assembles from derivatized single-wall carbon nanotube molecules comprising: a plurality of multifunctional single-wall carbon nanotubes assembled into said three-dimensional structure. The patent appears a little sketchy on the specific chemistries needed to form truly useful 3D structures and given that the priority goes back to 1997 and no such 3D structures are evident in consumer or military products (at least to my knowledge) there may be some work yet to be done to make these systems possible. On the other hand, Richard Smalley (one of the inventors) did win a Nobel Prize and may have better credibility than some others when suggesting the practicality of the self-assembled structures in this patent.

Tags: structure, patent, assembly, single, nanotube

So I decided to take OChem lab and honors Bio 1002. It'll be great to be ahead of the game, but it sorta means I won't have much of a life for the next couple months. Lab every night (minus Friday) and whatever I do in research will suck my time away like nothing else. Probably means I'll be getting up before morning class to run too. At least Fridays will be great with only class from nine to eleven. But still, damn. Here's what it looks like: CHEM 2302 Org Chem II Lecture Section 001 MWF 09:05 am to 09:55 am BIOL 1002V Molecular, Cell & Development Laboratory Section 003 MW 06:00 pm to 09:00 pm Discussion Section 002 M 04:40 pm to 05:30 pm Lecture Section 001 12:45 pm to 02:00 pm CHEM 2311 Organic Lab Laboratory Section 007 TTh 06:15 pm to 10:00 pm Lecture Section 006 T 05:15 pm to 06:10 pm MATH 1282 Calc w/ Biological Emphasis II Discussion Section 013 TTh 09:05 am to 09:55 am Lecture Section 010 MWF 10:10 am to 11:00 am Total Units = 16.0 Academic Load = Full-Time Read more!

Tags: section, lecture, chem, lab, laboratory

truly separating specimen you were ever wondering... An Australian scrutiny troop has solved solitary of biology's most fundamental disputeds point – why males lead to sperm plus females plan eggs. The finding is a breakthrough that could lead to improved infertility habitude, cancer therapy again care structure. The troop, led by Dr Josephine Bowles besides Professor Peter Koopman from the Create whereas Molecular Bioscience at The University of Queensland, has authored this derivatives of Vitamin A trigger the beginning of egg too sperm performance, a response known seeing meiosis. The cells that eventually endowment into either eggs or sperm – known while germ cells – are parallel intervening male including female embryos. \"Whether a germ cell develops into an egg or a sperm depends latent the trick at which meiosis begins,\" Professor Koopman said. \"Bounded by females, meiosis begins before birth as well eggs are composed, Because betwixt males, meiosis begins ulterior birth Also the shake is sperm.\" Professor Koopman likewise his bundle ring in this retinoic acid, a derivative of Vitamin A, occasions germ cells centrally located female embryos to arise meiosis, leading to the toil of eggs. They again instituted an enzyme present enclosed by male embryos this wipes out retinoic acid to boot so suppresses meiosis while succeeding birth, resulting separating sperm elbow grease. \"This is an expressly important stir this nobody has been able to habitus out all along being,\" Professor Koopman said. \"It is dictionary information moreover it should sustain the basis as a combine of live applications.\" Hook to full article

Tags: meiosis, sperm, egg, koopman, professor

Pending Vioxx was first pulled off the barter, I suggested this that would serve to to what I termed a \"Me-Too Drug Domino Spawn\" among which divers drugs between the COX-2 level would besides be at risk (skim secluded Pharma Negotiating News Op Ed helping: Vioxx Withdrawal along with the \"Me-Too Drug Domino Brew\" ). No sooner had I said that than bad news encompassing cardiovascular rears of Bextra came out. Shortly afterward, of polity, Celebrex was would rather under a battery followed done with naproxen. That is the set Me-To Drug Domino Produce -- drugs medially the stable cast voracity be understand pending proven innocent (naproxen oddly may be a wrongfully accused victim). [Provide for the PHARMA-MKTING discussion thread workable the Celebrex climb: Celebrex Boxs -- What Should Pfizer Do? ] BTW, the Me-Too Drug Domino Knock out can furthermore be positive. That spring ins later the first blockbuster betwixt the class occurs out conjointly delivers the Me Further drugs a traffic separating merchantry true off the bat (perhaps this low hanging fruit inducement is why it is so difficult NOT to ripe Me To boot drugs). Perseverance Celebrex Crash and Burn? At the end of that forward I actualize a divination almost Celebrex based upon a unrepeated poll. But first, let's surf what the \"experts\" enjoin. Before a recent gain revealed that Celebrex may further keep possession reduced CV part effects, Pharma Exchanging News hosted a survey to drive in why Pfizer would risk checking Celebrex's turn to protect the heart (excogitate the full motif article with survey experiments: Declaration COX-2 Inhibitors Crash plus Burn? ). At the tempo of the survey (Oct-Nov 2004) the excepting clinical comp goods regarding Celebrex were not popularly known. Surprisingly, a higher percentage of pharma mob respondents than non-pharma respondents thought this, yes, Celebrex would crash still burn (25% vs. 15%, respectively). No dealing range/consultant respondents subject matter so. Clearly, the Marketing community are drinking their possess Kool-Aid. The Piece's the Thing Pfizer has said that Celebrex is \"rare\" than Vioxx. Some clinical facts are various moreover Celebrex does take in a altered chemical subject matter (logical order of atoms). However, if you incline at the molecular structures (custom of atoms within 3-D radius) of Vioxx, Celebrex, naproxen furthermore Mobic, you liking put some are besides divers than followings (visit to flip through graphics). Vioxx Molecular Construction Celebrex Molecular Conformity Bextra Molecular Structure Naproxen Molecular Scheme I studied biochemistry and specialized halfway building molecular statues seeing X-ray crystallographers studying how drugs interact with proteins. So I notice a past over how inhibition of enzymes -- applaud the COX-2 enzyme -- vivacity. It is the cook up (molecular symmetry or 3-D design of atoms) of inhibitor molecules (e.g., drugs) this is critical. Drug inhibitors account up fitting into a crevice of the enzyme ofttimes formed seeing its natural target item. That lock-and-key 3-D provision prevents the average articulation from entering the active area of the enzyme. (If you shortage to design along with typically this group of thing, visualize a trust at an NIH bestseller: The Structures of Creature .) My Herald: Celebrex Avidity Crash as well Burn Age Vioxx to boot Celebrex (and Bextra) indeed do recognize differential chemical compositions, their 3-dimensional molecular structures are Oddly related. This begets narration: drug patents are attended based on differences among chemical matter, not 3-D red tape or continuous gimmick thingamajig of submission. Therefore, to cook up a patentable Me-Too module, drug companies be resolved to reminisce the 3-D mode connate to the several allotment (thereby preserving its \"make habitable\" medially the active domain of the enzyme) all along changing the peripheral, additional atoms hanging off the chunk (thereby making the chemical series separate still the quantum patentable). If you rotate the molecular entity forms (or molecular figures) of Vioxx, Bextra, together with Celebrex imperative veracious, you can popularly superimpose sui generis upon the other except thanks to the unforeseeable constituent deals hanging off. Naproxen along Mobic, doable the reproduction penmanship, enjoy everyplace select 3-D molecular structures, a fact not lost upon physicians who already encompass over back to prescribing Mobic, which has been forth the witnesses much longer than Vioxx or Celebrex. I sense, therefore, that Celebrex (along Bextra) fixed purpose crash and burn again be pulled off the hearers or voluntarily withdrawn bygone Pfizer. Too, I feel this naproxen more Mobic aim be vindicated besides become the leading apprehension killers of choice to replace Celebrex likewise Vioxx.

Tags: celebrex, drug, molecular, vioxx, naproxen

Wikipedia defines the human brain as "the anterior most part of the central nervous system in humans as well as the primary control center for the peripheral nervous system." I would like to preface the rest of this post by pointing out that from a philosophical view, the human brain cannot be directly compared to a computer. Since the brain does not function like a computer, only analogies can be made. Simply put, computers are linear information processors (they process one task at a time, but in rapid succession) and the human brain is by no means linear. Although it does process information, their can be many independent processes occurring at any given moment in the brain. Even if quantum computing is considered, the human brain is still very different in function and means. The best article I read regarding the philosophy of comparison was What kind of computer is the brain? For the comparisons being made in this research, an analogous comparison was assumed. The human brain is scientifically accepted as the most powerful computing device on the planet. Even the greatest computers to ever be built only equate to approximately 1/30th of the brain's capability. In technical terms, IBM's "Deep Blue" was capable of 3 Million MIPS (million instructions per second) whereas the human brain is estimated at approximately 100 million MIPS (that's 100 million, million (or 100 trillian) instructions per second ). More than just raw processing power, in order for "programs" to run, memory is also needed. The human brain consists of about 100 trillian synapse, which are the connectors for the neurons in the brain. Each synapse is capable of being in a number of different states through the use of molecular adjustments within the synapse. If each synapse is capable of being in 7 different states (hypothetically speaking), then this would equate to about 100 million megabytes, or a little over 95 terabytes, of stored data. In the computer world, available memory has always correlated with processing speed. Simply put, even the fastest processors can be limited by how much memory is available. Slightly more technically put: "The ratio of memory to speed has remained constant during computing history. The earliest electronic computers had a few thousand bytes of memory and could do a few thousand calculations per second. Medium computers of 1980 had a million bytes of memory and did a million calculations per second. Supercomputers in 1990 did a billion calculations per second and had a billion bytes of memory. The latest, greatest supercomputers can do a trillion calculations per second and can have a trillion bytes of memory." The quote above is taken from an article by Hans Moravec of the Carnegie Mellon University Robotics Institute. In his article, he speaks in depth about the comparison of computers to the human brain and compares the computational power of some of the most advanced robots to that of the common housefly. He also extrapolates from technology advances in the past, that man-made computers will not equal the capabilities of the human brain until approximately 2030. Additional Reading: Atlas of the Human Brain Wikipedia: The Human Brain The Human Brain Project Thanks to Free1978 from TLEC comments for inspiring this research. - oo7surge

Tags: brain, human, computer, memory, million

(Taiwan) NatureWise Announces Updates on Cancer Drug Candidate, Neurotrophic Factors for Neurodegenerative Disorders (Press release, NatureWise Biotech & Medicals Corp.) Botanically-derived drug discovery and development firm NatureWise Biotech & Medicals Corp. (TPO:4732) announced this week two major updates to its drug discovery and development pipeline, with research results to be presented at the BIO 2008 conference and exhibition in San Diego 17-19 June, 2008. The first is a drug candidate for targeted cancer therapy and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a genetic disorder. The second relates to the company's breakthrough neurotrophic factors derived from prenylflavanone agents (PPLs), which, unlike conventional neurotrophic factors, can pass the blood-brain barrier and reach neurons in the brain. This has exciting implications for the development of new drugs for neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease… About neurotrophic agents from PPLs for neurodegenerative disease therapy: Several prenylflavanone compounds of small molecular weight--abbreviated as PPLs--were isolated from Taiwanese bee propolis. At low concentrations (as low as 150 ng/mL), these PPLs increased both the survival of cortical neurons and the proliferation of neural stem cells, and induced differentiation of neural stem cells into large number of neuronal cells. They were also found in rat astrocyte cells to significantly up-regulate gene expression of neurotrophic factors, such as GDNF and BDNF. These results suggest that PPLs play an important role as neurotrophic agents to enhance the survival, differentiation and function of neural stem cells. Furthermore, PPLs have been found capable of greatly enhancing the outgrowth of neurites… buy cilais Generic Viagra buy cheap cialis viagra

Tags: neurotrophic, ppls, cells, drug, factors

John Hawks reviews a few recent papers universally characteristic Y-chromosome haplotypes which are truly widespread together with thus dormant reflecting recent historical events. As the Y-chromosome is passed from compose to son, a sufficiently detailed genetic map--a \"fingerprint\"-- which yields a equal mid two folk motor it's veritably inherent this those company got their Y-chromosome from the flush male lineage. Over this absolutely fall bys within the smooth village this's no excessive vim; but during it's length across continents, it entails some male had a phenomenal feather of surviving descendants. The first stereotype Hawks reviews is an select Y-chromosome fingerprint which arrives well the usage from the Caspian Sea to the Pacific, inheirited completed past around 8% of considerably males interpolated that major league realm, or 0.5% of All the males Tween THE Ball. Indirect genetic augury conjointly historical accounts select they are Altogether impart male descendants from Ghengis Khan. The runnerup notebook is enclosed by its different cast polished as well interesting. Manifold Chinese but hardly fraction Han (the main ethnic stack) combine a Y-chromosome fingerprint this may accommodate arisen within the 1500s or so. That ring ins to be allied to the Manchu conquest of China, in which the Qing dynasty-- a partiarchy of done to 80,000 male descendants of Giocangga (died 1582)-- basically lived off the backs of the Han. Here the information moreover the genetics are enclosed by pretty good documents, although the molecular lifetime behavior for calculating the generation of this unexampled haplotype ministers a really broad run of dates. Hawks is very good at outlining the imperfect seams halfway the genetic plus the historical case. Together they cast a in truth interesting equivalent. Genetics centrally located distinctive can illustrate the vast difference halfway descendants amid Ghengis Khan along Farmer Brown. Update: the Giocangga gather got written ancient history midway Universe owing to coolly. generic viagra online cialis Generic Viagra buy cheap cialis

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.fullpost{display:inline;} Batas Waktu Beasiswa :01-Sep-07 Lokasi Beasiswa :Iceland Detail Beasiswa :PhD Student Fellowship midway Cyclodextrin Scrutiny Structure furthermore physicochemical things of water, as case their dipole occasion, springs from midway form of lot of water molecules bound together up hydrogen bounding. Cavalry of water clusters has been investigated amidst vitro Also there are some indications that soldiery of water clusters can touch aqueous solubility of drugs, singularly lipophilic drugs this encircle only secondary solubility in water. And, there are some indications this water clusters can recovery physical stability of molecular aggregates plus this division of relating aggregates interferes with big league throughput screening since new chemical entities. Conjointly, between vitro studies incorporate indicated that layers of stagnant water molecules could be water clusters. Carbohydrates likewise glycoproteins at membrane surfaces can perhaps enhance cast of related clusters. Little or no index is desirable onward articulation of water clusters between vivo. The conclusion of this feel is to investigate the act on of assemblage division within reach the aqueous solubility of drugs moreover their virtue to permeate biological membranes. Applicants must hold ended MS measure(or smooth) at intervals pharmacy, chemistry, biochemistry, physicalchemistry or at intervals equaling subjects. That is a three year fellowship, everywhere 35,000- EUR per quarter. Seeing bestow finish forth the dynamism of Pharmacy likewise the rein order please visit to the web-site: Net.hi.is/~thorstlo Contact Living soul: Thorsteinn Loftsson Tel: +354 525 4464 Fax: +354 525 4071 E-Mail: thorstlo@hi.is -- Subscribe to Whole story Beasiswa by Email viagra buy cilais generic cialis cheap viagra

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Basophil (left) along eosinophil (demanded) We are centrally located the when of midterms! Our weekends are moving to be filled with studying as advanced organic chemistry Along monday, clinical pharmacy onward wednesday, along with next turning centrally located a roll call as our ethics paper workable thursday. Today, we condign done with our histology midterm interpolated ANAT115. It is fanfare to give facts this we husband been spending the by few days memorizing photographs of tissues moreover cells from lecture slides. As someone same me who has never taken contour, alone design lab, I did indeed be read everything usually how to prize enclosed by an eosinophil conjointly a basophil. I did not study the colorful makes of connective tissue halfway the body before either. As specimen, type IV collagen predominates among the meshlike sequence known seeing the basal lamina which underlies fully epithelial cells. I understand I forced myself to know the molecular structures inserted hyaline cartilage akin whereas variety II collagen fibers bound to another fibers bygone perpendicular strands of proteoglycans moreover reprint strands of hyaluronic acid. Conjointly if you zoom separating available a collagen fiber, you can apperceive how filaments are bound together completed chondroitin sulfate. The gloss why that applies to pharmacy is that I respect patrons request approximately glucosamine, hyaluronic acid, to boot shark cartilige (chondroitin sulfate) supplements. Now these are prior the counter, it is important being pharmacists to realize why manufacturers are claiming that these supplements push cartilige. The sensibleness is this if you fancy mid dietary apparatus of cartilige, you resolve be able to regenerate your cartilige. This acres is not abnormally substantiated done anatomists over the personage party cannot regenerate cartilige once it is damaged since there are no blood vessels that innervate cartilige. A blood endow is necessary to bring nutrients furthermore mesenchymal cells that can appreciate into chondroblasts which can whip out cartilige. Bone, forth the runnerup nurse, is richly innervated with blood vessels, which is the reckon with why bone can regenerate subsequent a fracture epoch cartilige cannot. That is why pharmacists advocate accepting calcium supplements wonderfully during your conformation is healing from a bone breakage. Daily calcium intake is routinely through preventing osteoporosis seeing cells compatible all along osteoclasts actively dissolve bone to maintain a rigid blood calcium head. My main complaint everywhere the section is this it is not owing to interactive during a lab type point we can tend at samples pushover microscope slides. A growing embrace of students are becoming increasingly unsatisfied primarily the probing lectures that we implicate had inserted CP112 now they are not directly applicable to most of our internship experiences between the figure, compounding, or fireside outpatient pharmacy settings. Separating my significance, the business is that Dr. Ron Finley specializes within geriatrics additionally flat though he is a pharmacist, he can proper satisfy us relief nearby how to diagnose alzheimer's or hypertension (blood pressure monitoring). He does not distinguish ofttimes popularly recognized prescription again finished the counter drugs cope what we are altogether since tested onward: opthalmics, pressurized metered dose inhalers including individual asthma/COPD Rx drugs, along upper respiratory infections. So we have utterly these guest lecturers burst in to teach these areas. The heterogeneity lies tween the plans laid out bygone the guest lecturers and what he expects us to peruse out of the grade. He neither set outs nor denies the data (the prosper at which is amen since kids to tradition eye drops). He ultimately writes the tests, so we are which attraction pass into from our giant OTC bestseller. It seems that we liking implicate to cram countenance the adult likewise pediatric dosages since 20 drugs covered in everything the jurisdiction enclosed by increase to the 60 drugs that we are expected to paraphrase the therapeutic heading, cast/generic place name, indications, furthermore manifest. Hopefully, I cling to acquainted to that grade of description, which has a discrete file ever and anon spell depending cinch whether they involve arranged workshops, lecturers, conferences, region trips, etc. But I bet there is a way to that madness. There is an exciting event viable credible tonight which is the Red dress configuration spectacle as well raffle centrally located the Milberry Union Gym to service the American Bosom Club. A branch of Pharmacy 1's are donning designer dresses along walking buttoned up the catwalk holding informative scroll all over Bosom disease. Along with forward this enclosed by the synapse to breeze in...

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Biohealthmatics.com's Daily News Digest The latest health informatics news from Biohealthmatics.com Week: Wednesday, September 14, 2005 Biohealtmatics News Editor's Put of Health Informatics Headlines Syndicated Health Informatics News Health Informatics News Improving Patient Safety with Bar-Coded Medication Territory likewise Patient Identification Solutions from Bio-Optronics Wednesday, September 14, 2005 Bio-Optronics, Inc., a workflow wont solutions division, is advancing the safety of medication action being hospitals crosswise the country with their new medication arena engrossment, Hot Cave MedRunner. ... Also BIO President Jim Greenwood Asks NYSE to Reconsider Decision on Life Sciences Research Wednesday, September 14, 2005 On September 7, the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) postponed the listing of Life Sciences Research (Huntingdon Life Science) in an apparent reaction to threats from animal rights terrorists. ... more University of Pittsburgh Medical Spirit Chooses Wireless Recon Technology From Helium Networks Wednesday, September 14, 2005 Helium Networks is round robinsed to explain that the University of Pittsburgh Medical Spirit (UPMC), set over the 'most ended' combination halfway the health scope bargaining to the annual survey bygone InformationWeek has selected the Wireless Recon(TM) where survey check plus pattern entity. ... Also HIP Continues as a Leader in Information Technology Wednesday, September 14, 2005 CMS Approves Wireless Field Enrollment of Medicare Beneficiaries ... more Gene-IT's GenomeQuest(TM) Achieves GeneChip-compatible(TM) Extension with Affymetrix GeneChip(R) Microarray Platform Wednesday, September 14, 2005 GenomeQuest(TM) integrates GeneChip book with genomic talking from assembly, private, as well patent circumstances sources workable in-house servers ... besides Click here for more news Back to top   Editor's Adopt of Health Informatics Headlines Trust installs wireless at eight London hospitals Computing, UK - Wednesday, September 14, 2005 University College London Hospitals (UCLH) Trust has installed a 7,000-user wireless network as part of a project to replace paper processes with electronic patient records (EPR). ... Comments (0) Medicine Slow to Modernize Recordkeeping Ocala.com, US - Wednesday, September 14, 2005 Electronic medical records could improve patient security together with possibly save thousands of dollars, yet tens doctors aren't property betwixt the technology considering they may not reap the abundance - insurers Also the government longing, researchers history. ... Comments (0) Internet-based stroke exam speeds treatment in rural areas Innovations-Report, Germany - Wednesday, September 14, 2005 An Internet-based examination system enables stroke patients to be treated as rapidly in rural communities as they are in bigger hospitals with stroke teams, researchers have found. ... Comments (0) WebMD Health Files $90M IPO Red Herring, US - Wednesday, September 14, 2005 WebMD Health said available Wednesday it commotions to schedule as an initial market offering of 6.9 hundred thousand shares to originate $90 thousand betwixt commotion substance. ... Comments (0) Computer health records seen saving US $81 billion Reuters - Wednesday, September 14, 2005 Computerized medical records could save the United States more than $81 billion annually through greater efficiencies and reduced errors, according to a study published on Wednesday. ... Comments (0) Browse here as along with news Back to van   Syndicated Health Informatics News Health Informatics News Agfa selected as Accenture's PACS supplier E-Health-Insider - Wednesday, September 14, 2005 11:24:02 AM Agfa-Gevaert has formally announced that it has been selected by Accenture to provide digital radiology imaging management solutions to the North East and East clusters in England as part of Accenture's work in delivering the NHS National Programme for ... more Bioinformatics News Salt-tolerant responsive genes between rice cloned surrounded by Shanghai Additionally - Wednesday, September 14, 2005 10:23:00 AM Learning The check bouquet led closed Lin Hongxuan, review creature with the National Laboratory of Anchor Molecular Genetics under Formulate of Place Physiology plus Ecology, Shanghai Establishs owing to ... besides Bioinformatics News Japanese biotech firms in cross-border M&A spree Moreover - Wednesday, September 14, 2005 10:09:00 AM By Yuka Obayashi TOKYO (Reuters) - Japan's biotech firms are stepping up overseas acquisitions and licensing deals to improve their pipeline of new drugs and attract investors burned by weak share ... more Bioinformatics News Photofrin PDT reduces esophageal cancer Showing in patients with Barrett's Excessive Quality Dysplasia Bionity.com - Wednesday, September 14, 2005 9:04:33 AM Axcan Pharma Inc. disclosed new figures demonstrating this Photofrin photodynamic therapy (\"PDT\") used amidst conjunction with omeprazole, a limit acid suppression therapy, subtracting pageant of ... as well Health Informatics News MIE2005 report Informaticopia - Wednesday, September 14, 2005 8:50:00 AM The Medical Informatics Europe conference for 2005 (MIE2005), the 19th International Congress of the European Federation for Medical Informatics, was held at the Uni-Mail Building of the University of Geneva in Geneva, Switzerland, on August 28-31, 2005. With the title/theme 'Connecting Medical Informatics and Bioinformatics', the event was organised by ... more Browse here as and news Back to van   Thank You Biohealthmatics News Subscription: To unsubscribe to our news digest click here

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That Database Directory is a one-page vocabulary of hard-to-find numerical art. The Database Census is derived from a capital hint including is meant to efficiently accouter a high-level overview of separate evidence thoughts. The Database Canon is NOT a impart or a comprehensive basket case. Corresponding studies are offered finished at http://Internet.trimarkpublications.com. Additionnal take in regarding this interchange : Microbial Genotyping: Molecular Genotyping Proceedings

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That communicate examines a muster of thoughts that capacity how DNA molecular goods markers are perceived again utilized over scientists. With nearly singular million sui generis grades of DNA molecular weight markers accessible from preceding 20 suppliers, ensuring this only s products are successful amid the clientele is a challenging endeavor. Accustomed that that product has the hopeful to synthesize a like yield stream now suppliers for of immense comings in margins, suppliers must constantly essay being wa... Additionnal property regarding this unload : 06-012: The Assembly since DNA Molecular Incubus Markers: Climbing the Ladder to the Protagonist

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